While a lot of work has been done on a) aspects of psychiatric practice in the First World War, especially ‘shell-shock’ in relation to the armed forces, and b) the history of conscientious objectors (COs), there is less information generally available on the experience of COs in relation to the psychiatry of the time. Although institutional records of the treatment of individual patients may still be unavailable, it is possible to make a start with data already in the public domain, first and foremost (once again) the Pearce Register online. Keyword searching finds just over 30 'certified' insane, and a similar number said to have suffered some kind of mental breakdown, the latter at least almost certainly an underestimate. In each case any or all of a variety of particulars may be supplied, including: age, address, occupation, apparent motivation, diagnosis, and eventual outcome.
In addition, campaigners and COs themselves recounted not only the damage inflicted on bodies, but frequent fears that minds too were at grave risk. (Some of these have been quoted in a previous post).
References from Conscientious Objectors of the Second World War: Refusing to Fight by Ann Kramer (Pen & Sword, 2014):
- ‘One young CO, S Cooper of Leeds, had actually gone insane because of the treatment he received [in Richmond Castle]’;
- “Already I am half mad.” – James Brighthouse, Cleethorpes, June 1917;
- Fenner Brockway credited Sinn Feiners (Irish fellow-prisoners) with having saved his mind during solitary confinement by such means as smuggling papers;
- while Harold Blake remembered suffering dreadfully in prison and fearing he was going insane.
Sometimes this apprehension could be fostered deliberately, used as a threat or as an excuse for physical restraint, as reported by the writer in The Tribunal of 23-1-19 who, informed by the Medical Officer (MO) that he was a lunatic, found himself in a straitjacket in a padded room. In another case, according to a report of the No-Conscription Fellowship (NCF) and COIB cited on the Register, the doctor ‘wanted to send [a Welsh Trade Unionist] to an asylum but NCF [was] able to prevent this’. Defiantly, J B Saunders confronted the possibility in Tribunal 20-9-17 (quoted by Kramer p.80): ‘My mind I will destroy rather than allow the military cult to take it.’
The official Home Office Statistics for CO prisoners quoted in Kramer’s book (p.129) count only 27 who died and just 3 ‘certified insane’ out of 4,126. She herself reckons 31 ‘eventually went insane’ (p.82). The bland, ignorant or callous response of the government to expression of concern about such men has already been looked at in the context of parliamentary debates, as in:
- There is no reason for thinking that his insanity was in any way attributable to the treatment he received in prison.
- There have been twelve cases in which conscientious objectors have developed symptoms of insanity in prison, and it is clear that in all of them the insanity was due to causes and conditions existing before their conviction...
- Q. Are there any prisoners who have developed insanity and who are still in prison? - A .I should think that it is very unlikely. No doubt they are being looked after in the proper place.
- The numbers of persons claiming to be conscientious objectors who have been certified insane are in Prison 13, in Work Centres 3. In all cases there was reason to believe that the insanity was due to conditions existing before their imprisonment.
One MP who was particularly assiduous in the cause of COs was the Quaker T E Harvey, whose voluminous correspondence on the matter can be consulted at Friends House (FH), Euston. Two of the many individual cases drawn to his attention were those of men listed below.
Summary notes:
FH files, T. E. Harvey. Box 5 Re. T. S. Overbury. 22-11-16.
(PQ 21-11) So as to anticipate the answer [to Parliamentary Question] that he is being forcibly fed, these are the
facts. Hunger strike for 36 days, 28 in Scrubs; took food 4 days, now on h.s. since 10-11. He is being forcibly fed but such is his strength of will that he makes himself sick so that he receives no nourishment and is, to all intents and purposes, being starved to death. Urgency. Ask if he can obtain food from outside in the manner he desires.
From the Parliamentary Secretary of N-C F.
FH Box 5:Albert F. Parrish and brother.
Letter from C. Brightwest at Rowntree, Saffron Walden 5-4-1917 reports AFP failed to get exemption at Local Tribunal (LT) and AppealTribunal (AT). Arrested, taken to Worsley then Wormwood Scrubs (WS) 6 months. After seven weeks his wife got a brief official note from the Governor of the prison:
Dear Madam,
This is to inform you that your husband has been certified as insane, and will shortly be removed for special treatment.
Wife asked what it meant and what would be done. Writer took man's mother to WS Saturday afternoon, saw Doctors; found where he was and arranged for Mother to see him Monday a.m. To her he appeared perfectly normal except that he said he had suffered from his head since he was at Worsley where he was rather knocked about during the process of being forcibly dressed in uniform. He told the Prison Doctor nothing about the cause of his bad head. In London County Asylum at Epsom, seen by wife, brooding over the fact of being in the Asylum; convinced he would be all right if liberated and Asylum will make him worse. Still technically a prisoner. No insanity in the family. Law should be satisfied if working of the Military Service Act has driven someone insane and impose no further penalty. Efforts should be to restore him to normal health.
Brother A W Parrish turned down by Dunmow LT. Awaiting arrest and prepared to face possibility of becoming insane like his brother and 40-50 other COs.
Box 2. Samuel Cartwright. No- Conscription Fellowship (N-CF). Correspondence with Parliamentary Secretary. 21-4-17 Very sad case of CO evidently been driven quite insane by experiences undergone in prison. There was plenty of evidence at the start of his persecution that he was in ill-health mentally; authorities solely.responsible for his present condition which leaves his parents practically destitute. They have been given fourteen shillings in full settlement at his discharge, a tacit admission of liability.
Facts of case 15/17-4-17 from Brian Longstaffe, Barrow in Furness - Lifelong disease of the brain, unable to attend school. Sent to Non-Combatant Corps (NCC) - rejected at medical then ordered to report. Hospital, violent. Lancaster Asylum. Authorities refused all information to parents. Discharged unfit 9-4-17. Money order. Likely to be permanent burden instead of support to his parents. Father invalid.
A few case histories have been looked at in the context of Hanwell Asylum and elsewhere (Shetland).
Summary notes:
FH files, T. E. Harvey. Box 5 Re. T. S. Overbury. 22-11-16.
(PQ 21-11) So as to anticipate the answer [to Parliamentary Question] that he is being forcibly fed, these are the
facts. Hunger strike for 36 days, 28 in Scrubs; took food 4 days, now on h.s. since 10-11. He is being forcibly fed but such is his strength of will that he makes himself sick so that he receives no nourishment and is, to all intents and purposes, being starved to death. Urgency. Ask if he can obtain food from outside in the manner he desires.
From the Parliamentary Secretary of N-C F.
FH Box 5:Albert F. Parrish and brother.
Letter from C. Brightwest at Rowntree, Saffron Walden 5-4-1917 reports AFP failed to get exemption at Local Tribunal (LT) and AppealTribunal (AT). Arrested, taken to Worsley then Wormwood Scrubs (WS) 6 months. After seven weeks his wife got a brief official note from the Governor of the prison:
Dear Madam,
This is to inform you that your husband has been certified as insane, and will shortly be removed for special treatment.
Wife asked what it meant and what would be done. Writer took man's mother to WS Saturday afternoon, saw Doctors; found where he was and arranged for Mother to see him Monday a.m. To her he appeared perfectly normal except that he said he had suffered from his head since he was at Worsley where he was rather knocked about during the process of being forcibly dressed in uniform. He told the Prison Doctor nothing about the cause of his bad head. In London County Asylum at Epsom, seen by wife, brooding over the fact of being in the Asylum; convinced he would be all right if liberated and Asylum will make him worse. Still technically a prisoner. No insanity in the family. Law should be satisfied if working of the Military Service Act has driven someone insane and impose no further penalty. Efforts should be to restore him to normal health.
Brother A W Parrish turned down by Dunmow LT. Awaiting arrest and prepared to face possibility of becoming insane like his brother and 40-50 other COs.
Box 2. Samuel Cartwright. No- Conscription Fellowship (N-CF). Correspondence with Parliamentary Secretary. 21-4-17 Very sad case of CO evidently been driven quite insane by experiences undergone in prison. There was plenty of evidence at the start of his persecution that he was in ill-health mentally; authorities solely.responsible for his present condition which leaves his parents practically destitute. They have been given fourteen shillings in full settlement at his discharge, a tacit admission of liability.
Facts of case 15/17-4-17 from Brian Longstaffe, Barrow in Furness - Lifelong disease of the brain, unable to attend school. Sent to Non-Combatant Corps (NCC) - rejected at medical then ordered to report. Hospital, violent. Lancaster Asylum. Authorities refused all information to parents. Discharged unfit 9-4-17. Money order. Likely to be permanent burden instead of support to his parents. Father invalid.
A few case histories have been looked at in the context of Hanwell Asylum and elsewhere (Shetland).
Towards an Overview
Because of the incompleteness of the data,it is hardly possible to draw out any general conclusion as to a 'type' of CO who might have been particularly at risk of suffering mental illness. The most obvious finding is that they varied, as far as most of the headings go.
Who They Were
(plus or minus birth year)
Baker I or J —
Bamford Thomas 1888
Burgess Henry 1880
Burke John —
Cartwright Samuel 1896
Cook Alexander Robert 1877
Davis Thomas —
Elsworth Richard 1889
Eungblut Alfred E. 1895
French Bertie 1897
Frost Albert —
Griffiths Owen 1877
Harbord Evelyn Wilfred 1889
Harrison George 1888
Hook T —
Hopkinson Claude John 1896
Morgan Aneurin 1893
Nutter Henry 1877
Overbury Timothy Sidney 1880
Parrish Albert F. —
Piper Frank 1884
Pitcher William 1887
Ramsay George Hegarty 1890
Shorley Herbert Alfred 1878
Smith W. V. —
Statton Alfred Ernest 1890
Styche John 1890
Taylor John —
Watt Andrew May 1894
Plus (not noted as certified')…
J A Allbutt nervous breakdown
John Ballinger nervous breakdown while in prison
George E Bent nervous breakdown
Brice J. W.or W. J. - threatened with being sent to asylum [Walter John Brice]
Sidney Cooper mental illness
Alfred Anscombe Hart (Islington) mental breakdown
W E Herring nervous breakdown
Horace Walter Lerpiniere (Walthamstow) nervous breakdown
William Raistrick 'Nervous breakdown' 17.1.19
Edward Ridgeway (International Socialist) nervous breakdown… caused him to accept HOS…
Sydney Smith nervous breakdown
Leo George Spencer (East Ham) nervous breakdown
J Watt nervous breakdown
Robert Henry Noble illness, mental, 31.12.18
Cyril Lawrence Newton Butler Mental Illness - 'Feeblemindedness'
Frederick John Cox mental derangement in Wandsworth
John Ferrier Lamont (Aberdeen) 'Congenital Mental Instability'
John Eric Langdon-Davies mental illness - melancholia in Wormwood S., 'neurotic and unstable'
Harry Phipps (Harringay) signs of mental derangement
Bamford Thomas 1888
Burgess Henry 1880
Burke John —
Cartwright Samuel 1896
Cook Alexander Robert 1877
Davis Thomas —
Elsworth Richard 1889
Eungblut Alfred E. 1895
French Bertie 1897
Frost Albert —
Griffiths Owen 1877
Harbord Evelyn Wilfred 1889
Harrison George 1888
Hook T —
Hopkinson Claude John 1896
Morgan Aneurin 1893
Nutter Henry 1877
Overbury Timothy Sidney 1880
Parrish Albert F. —
Piper Frank 1884
Pitcher William 1887
Ramsay George Hegarty 1890
Shorley Herbert Alfred 1878
Smith W. V. —
Statton Alfred Ernest 1890
Styche John 1890
Taylor John —
Watt Andrew May 1894
Plus (not noted as certified')…
J A Allbutt nervous breakdown
John Ballinger nervous breakdown while in prison
George E Bent nervous breakdown
Brice J. W.or W. J. - threatened with being sent to asylum [Walter John Brice]
Sidney Cooper mental illness
Alfred Anscombe Hart (Islington) mental breakdown
W E Herring nervous breakdown
Horace Walter Lerpiniere (Walthamstow) nervous breakdown
William Raistrick 'Nervous breakdown' 17.1.19
Edward Ridgeway (International Socialist) nervous breakdown… caused him to accept HOS…
Sydney Smith nervous breakdown
Leo George Spencer (East Ham) nervous breakdown
J Watt nervous breakdown
Robert Henry Noble illness, mental, 31.12.18
Cyril Lawrence Newton Butler Mental Illness - 'Feeblemindedness'
Frederick John Cox mental derangement in Wandsworth
John Ferrier Lamont (Aberdeen) 'Congenital Mental Instability'
John Eric Langdon-Davies mental illness - melancholia in Wormwood S., 'neurotic and unstable'
Harry Phipps (Harringay) signs of mental derangement
Where They Were From
Northern Isles to Channel coast
Barnes, Surrey
Burslem, Staffs.
Glamorganshire
Dulwich
Morecambe
Barrow in Furness
Shetland
Barnoldswick Yorks.
St Pancras
Haverhill, Suffolk
Bletchley, Bucks.
Glamorganshire
Ipswich
Liverpool
Derbyshire
Port Talbot, Glam.
Brotherhood Church, Beeston, Leeds
Thaxted Essex
St Agnes, Truro, Cornwall
Walsall, Staffs.
Chelsea
Kettering
Clapton
Cardiff
Warwickshire
West Ham
Burslem, Staffs.
Glamorganshire
Dulwich
Morecambe
Barrow in Furness
Shetland
Barnoldswick Yorks.
St Pancras
Haverhill, Suffolk
Bletchley, Bucks.
Glamorganshire
Ipswich
Liverpool
Derbyshire
Port Talbot, Glam.
Brotherhood Church, Beeston, Leeds
Thaxted Essex
St Agnes, Truro, Cornwall
Walsall, Staffs.
Chelsea
Kettering
Clapton
Cardiff
Warwickshire
West Ham
What They Did
Ovenman
Shorthand writer
Watch and clock repairer
Schoolteacher (2)
Weaver former Baker
Piano Tuner
Upholsterer
Card puncher
Hosier and Draper
Church worker
Cycle dealer
Carpenter and wheelwright
Saddle bar maker
Artist
bricklayer
Wood sawyer/machinist
Farm Labourer
Shorthand writer
Watch and clock repairer
Schoolteacher (2)
Weaver former Baker
Piano Tuner
Upholsterer
Card puncher
Hosier and Draper
Church worker
Cycle dealer
Carpenter and wheelwright
Saddle bar maker
Artist
bricklayer
Wood sawyer/machinist
Farm Labourer
Why They Were COs
(possibly) i.e. 'Motivation'
Trade unionist
Occasional Quaker Attender (Peckham);
NCF (No-Conscription Fellowship) (4)
Wesleyan Methodist
Presbyterian (3)
Wesleyan Methodist
Presbyterian (3)
Quaker
Christadelphian
Not attached to any know organisation
Baptist
Primitive Methodist
Wesleyan
ILP (Independent Labour Party)
Roman Catholic
Question in House (Q in H) 10.6.18 re his mental state - Is he now in an asylum?
Q in H 20.6.17 re his being sent to hospital (etc.)
Rejected at medical - Mental Illness - long-standing condition
Hunger strike 24.3.17 to 10.4.17 - 'borderline insane' transfer to asylum
Illness, mental 28.10.18 '. went raving mad'; to Lunatic Asylum
'Padded cell' at Shepton Mallet; 28.1.18 'Certified insane' - serving (?) sentence 9.5.19
Recently discharged from Derbyshire Asylum and rejected by Army Medical Board
Temporarily to Lancaster Asylum due to loss of memory (the unfortunately named Henry Nutter)
Central Tribunal Nos. W.1532 Class: C - Political
Medical Board report - 'Is of low mentality and obsessed with religious ideas against war but not certifiably insane'.
Discharged from asylum by order of Secretary of State 4.2.19
'No longer physically fit for service' - 'delusional insanity'
London CM (Court Martial) Torquay 23.4.17 - Guilty but insane; Mental Illness
Mental Illness - 'Feebleminded', 'Insane', 'Imbecile'
Q in H 5.2.18 re his suicide on the 20th January*
Some of the stories outlined in the records will be examined in more detail in subsequent posts.
Primitive Methodist
Wesleyan
ILP (Independent Labour Party)
Roman Catholic
What Happened, What Was Said
(selection)
Doctor wanted to send Brice to an asylum but NCF able to prevent this (selection)
Question in House (Q in H) 10.6.18 re his mental state - Is he now in an asylum?
Q in H 20.6.17 re his being sent to hospital (etc.)
Rejected at medical - Mental Illness - long-standing condition
Hunger strike 24.3.17 to 10.4.17 - 'borderline insane' transfer to asylum
Illness, mental 28.10.18 '. went raving mad'; to Lunatic Asylum
'Padded cell' at Shepton Mallet; 28.1.18 'Certified insane' - serving (?) sentence 9.5.19
Recently discharged from Derbyshire Asylum and rejected by Army Medical Board
Temporarily to Lancaster Asylum due to loss of memory (the unfortunately named Henry Nutter)
Central Tribunal Nos. W.1532 Class: C - Political
Medical Board report - 'Is of low mentality and obsessed with religious ideas against war but not certifiably insane'.
Discharged from asylum by order of Secretary of State 4.2.19
'No longer physically fit for service' - 'delusional insanity'
London CM (Court Martial) Torquay 23.4.17 - Guilty but insane; Mental Illness
Mental Illness - 'Feebleminded', 'Insane', 'Imbecile'
Q in H 5.2.18 re his suicide on the 20th January*
Some of the stories outlined in the records will be examined in more detail in subsequent posts.
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